>>> d = DefaultDict(0) 
>>> d['x'] += 1
>>> d['x']
1

>>> d = DefaultDict([])
>>> d['x'] += [1]
>>> d['y'] += [2]
>>> d['x']
[1]

>>> s = Struct(a=1, b=2)
>>> s.a
1
>>> s.a = 3
>>> s
Struct(a=3, b=2)
            
>>> def is_even(x): 
...     return x % 2 == 0
>>> sorted([1, 2, -3]) 
[-3, 1, 2]
>>> sorted(range(10), key=is_even)
[1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
>>> sorted(range(10), lambda x,y: y-x) 
[9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

>>> removeall(4, []) 
[]
>>> removeall('s', 'This is a test. Was a test.') 
'Thi i a tet. Wa a tet.'
>>> removeall('s', 'Something') 
'Something'
>>> removeall('s', '') 
''

>>> list(reversed([])) 
[]

>>> count_if(is_even, [1, 2, 3, 4]) 
2
>>> count_if(is_even, []) 
0

>>> argmax([1], lambda x: x*x) 
1
>>> argmin([1], lambda x: x*x) 
1


# Test of memoize with slots in structures
>>> countries = [Struct(name='united states'), Struct(name='canada')]

# Pretend that 'gnp' was some big hairy operation:
>>> def gnp(country): 
...     print 'calculating gnp ...'
...     return len(country.name) * 1e10

>>> gnp = memoize(gnp, '_gnp')
>>> map(gnp, countries)
calculating gnp ...
calculating gnp ...
[130000000000.0, 60000000000.0]
>>> countries
[Struct(_gnp=130000000000.0, name='united states'), Struct(_gnp=60000000000.0, name='canada')]

# This time we avoid re-doing the calculation
>>> map(gnp, countries) 
[130000000000.0, 60000000000.0]

# Test Queues:
>>> nums = [1, 8, 2, 7, 5, 6, -99, 99, 4, 3, 0]
>>> def qtest(q): 
...     return [q.extend(nums), [q.pop() for i in range(len(q))]][1]

>>> qtest(Stack()) 
[0, 3, 4, 99, -99, 6, 5, 7, 2, 8, 1]

>>> qtest(FIFOQueue()) 
[1, 8, 2, 7, 5, 6, -99, 99, 4, 3, 0]

>>> qtest(PriorityQueue(min)) 
[-99, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 99]

>>> qtest(PriorityQueue(max)) 
[99, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -99]

>>> qtest(PriorityQueue(min, abs)) 
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, -99, 99]

>>> qtest(PriorityQueue(max, abs)) 
[99, -99, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

>>> vals = [100, 110, 160, 200, 160, 110, 200, 200, 220]
>>> histogram(vals) 
[(100, 1), (110, 2), (160, 2), (200, 3), (220, 1)]
>>> histogram(vals, 1) 
[(200, 3), (110, 2), (160, 2), (220, 1), (100, 1)]
>>> histogram(vals, 1, lambda v: round(v, -2)) 
[(200.0, 6), (100.0, 3)]

>>> log2(1.0) 
0.0

>>> def fib(n): 
...     return (n<=1 and 1) or (fib(n-1) + fib(n-2))

>>> fib(9)
55

# Now we make it faster:
>>> fib = memoize(fib)
>>> fib(9) 
55

>>> q = Stack()
>>> q.append(1)
>>> q.append(2)
>>> q.pop(), q.pop()
(2, 1)

>>> q = FIFOQueue()
>>> q.append(1)
>>> q.append(2)
>>> q.pop(), q.pop()
(1, 2)


>>> abc = set('abc')
>>> bcd = set('bcd')
>>> 'a' in abc
True
>>> 'a' in bcd
False
>>> list(abc.intersection(bcd))
['c', 'b']
>>> list(abc.union(bcd))
['a', 'c', 'b', 'd']

## From "What's new in Python 2.4", but I added calls to sl

>>> def sl(x):
...     return sorted(list(x))


>>> a = set('abracadabra')                  # form a set from a string
>>> 'z' in a                                # fast membership testing
False
>>> sl(a)                                   # unique letters in a
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r']

>>> b = set('alacazam')                     # form a second set
>>> sl(a - b)                               # letters in a but not in b
['b', 'd', 'r']
>>> sl(a | b)                               # letters in either a or b
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'l', 'm', 'r', 'z']
>>> sl(a & b)                               # letters in both a and b
['a', 'c']
>>> sl(a ^ b)                               # letters in a or b but not both
['b', 'd', 'l', 'm', 'r', 'z']


>>> a.add('z')                              # add a new element
>>> a.update('wxy')                         # add multiple new elements
>>> sl(a)  
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'x', 'y', 'z']
>>> a.remove('x')                           # take one element out
>>> sl(a)
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'z']