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\begin{huge}
\titleslide{Communication and Language}{Chapter 22}

\sf

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Outline}

\blob Communication

\blob Grammar

\blob Syntactic analysis

\blob Problems




%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Communication}

``Classical'' view (pre-1953):\al
   language consists of sentences that are true/false (cf.~logic)

``Modern'' view (post-1953):\al
   language is a form of action

Wittgenstein (1953) \emph{Philosophical Investigations}\\
Austin (1962) \emph{How to Do Things with Words}\\
Searle (1969) \emph{Speech Acts}

Why?


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Communication}

``Classical'' view (pre-1953):\al
   language consists of sentences that are true/false (cf.~logic)

``Modern'' view (post-1953):\al
   language is a form of action

Wittgenstein (1953) \emph{Philosophical Investigations}\\
Austin (1962) \emph{How to Do Things with Words}\\
Searle (1969) \emph{Speech Acts}

Why? \hspace*{5.5in}\epsfxsize=2in\raisebox{-1.5in}[0pt][0pt]{\epsffile{\file{figures}{lamppost.ps}}}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Communication}

``Classical'' view (pre-1953):\al
   language consists of sentences that are true/false (cf.~logic)

``Modern'' view (post-1953):\al
   language is a form of action

Wittgenstein (1953) \emph{Philosophical Investigations}\\
Austin (1962) \emph{How to Do Things with Words}\\
Searle (1969) \emph{Speech Acts}

Why? \hspace*{5.5in}\epsfxsize=2in\raisebox{-1.5in}[0pt][0pt]{\epsffile{\file{figures}{lamppost+dog.ps}}}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Communication}

``Classical'' view (pre-1953):\al
   language consists of sentences that are true/false (cf.~logic)

``Modern'' view (post-1953):\al
   language is a form of action

Wittgenstein (1953) \emph{Philosophical Investigations}\\
Austin (1962) \emph{How to Do Things with Words}\\
Searle (1969) \emph{Speech Acts}

Why? \hspace*{5.5in}\epsfxsize=2in\raisebox{-1.5in}[0pt][0pt]{\epsffile{\file{figures}{lamppost+dog.ps}}}

\emph{To change the actions of other agents}


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Speech acts}

\vspace*{0.2in}

\epsfxsize=0.7\textwidth
\fig{\file{figures}{utterance.ps}}

Speech acts achieve the speaker's goals:\al
\begin{tabular}{ll}
  \emph{Inform} & ``There's a pit in front of you'' \\
  \emph{Query}  & ``Can you see the gold?'' \\
  \emph{Command} & ``Pick it up'' \\
  \emph{Promise} & ``I'll share the gold with you'' \\
  \emph{Acknowledge} & ``OK''
\end{tabular}

Speech act planning requires knowledge of\al
-- Situation \al
-- Semantic and syntactic conventions \al
-- Hearer's goals, knowledge base, and rationality


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Stages in communication (informing)}

\begin{tabular}{ll}
  \emph{Intention} & S wants to inform H that \mat{$P$}  \\
  \emph{Generation} & S selects words \mat{$W$} to express \mat{$P$}  in context  \mat{$C$}  \\
  \emph{Synthesis} & S utters words \mat{$W$}  \\
         &   \\
  \emph{Perception} & H perceives \mat{$W'$} in context  \mat{$C'$}  \\
  \emph{Analysis} & H infers possible meanings \mat{$P_1,\ldots P_n$}  \\
  \emph{Disambiguation} & H infers intended meaning \mat{$P_i$}  \\
  \emph{Incorporation} & H incorporates \mat{$P_i$} into KB
\end{tabular}

How could this go wrong?  


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Stages in communication (informing)}

\begin{tabular}{ll}
  \emph{Intention} & S wants to inform H that \mat{$P$}  \\
  \emph{Generation} & S selects words \mat{$W$} to express \mat{$P$} in context  \mat{$C$}\\
  \emph{Synthesis} & S utters words \mat{$W$}  \\
         &   \\
  \emph{Perception} & H perceives \mat{$W'$} in context  \mat{$C'$} \\
  \emph{Analysis} & H infers possible meanings \mat{$P_1,\ldots P_n$}  \\
  \emph{Disambiguation} & H infers intended meaning \mat{$P_i$}  \\
  \emph{Incorporation} & H incorporates \mat{$P_i$} into KB
\end{tabular}

How could this go wrong?  \al
-- Insincerity (S doesn't believe \mat{$P$})\al
-- Speech wreck ignition failure \al
-- Ambiguous utterance \al
-- Differing understanding of current context (\mat{$C\neq C'$})\al


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Grammar}

Vervet monkeys, antelopes etc.~use isolated symbols for sentences\al
\mat{$\implies$} restricted set of communicable propositions, no \defn{generative capacity}\\
(Chomsky (1957): \emph{Syntactic Structures})


\defn{Grammar} specifies the compositional structure of complex messages\al
e.g., speech (linear), text (linear), music (two-dimensional)

A \defn{formal language} is a set of \defn{strings} of \defn{terminal symbols}

Each string in the language can be analyzed/generated by the grammar

The grammar is a set of \defn{rewrite rules}, e.g.,
\begin{formula}
 \bnf{S} \bnfeq \bnf{NP} \bl \bnf{VP} \\
 \bnf{Article} \bnfeq \bnft{the \bnfor a \bnfor an} \bnfor \ldots
\end{formula}
Here \mat{$\bnf{S}$} is the \defn{sentence} symbol, \mat{$\bnf{NP}$} and \mat{$\bnf{VP}$} are \defn{nonterminals}


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Grammar types}

\defn{Regular}: \mat{$\bnf{nonterminal} \bnfeq \bnft{terminal} [\bnf{nonterminal}]$}
\begin{formula}
  \bnf{S} \bnfeq \bnft{a}\bnf{S}\\
  \bnf{S} \bnfeq \Lambda
\end{formula}

\defn{Context-free}: \mat{$\bnf{nonterminal} \bnfeq \bnf{anything} $}
\begin{formula}
  \bnf{S} \bnfeq \bnft{a}\bnf{S}\bnft{b}
\end{formula}

\defn{Context-sensitive}: more nonterminals on right-hand side
\begin{formula}
  \bnf{A} \bnf{S} \bnf{B} \bnfeq \bnf{A} \bnf{A} \bnft{a} \bnf{B}\bnf{B}
\end{formula}

\defn{Recursively enumerable}: no constraints

Related to Post systems and Kleene systems of rewrite rules

Natural languages probably context-free, parsable in real time!

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Wumpus lexicon}

\vspace*{-0.5in}

\begin{eqnarray*}
\bnf{Noun} & \bnfeq & \bnft{stench \bnfor breeze \bnfor glitter \bnfor nothing} \\
        & &\bnfor \bnft{wumpus \bnfor pit \bnfor pits\bnfor gold \bnfor east} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Verb} & \bnfeq & \bnft{is \bnfor see \bnfor smell \bnfor shoot \bnfor feel \bnfor stinks}\\
        & &\bnfor \bnft{go \bnfor grab \bnfor carry \bnfor kill \bnfor turn} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Adjective} & \bnfeq & \bnft{right \bnfor left \bnfor east \bnfor south \bnfor back \bnfor smelly} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Adverb} & \bnfeq & \bnft{here \bnfor there \bnfor nearby \bnfor ahead} \\
        &&\bnfor \bnft{right \bnfor left \bnfor east \bnfor south \bnfor back} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Pronoun} & \bnfeq & \bnft{me \bnfor you \bnfor I \bnfor it} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Name} & \bnfeq & \bnft{John} \bnfor \bnft{Mary} \bnfor \bnft{Boston}
	\bnfor \bnft{UCB} \bnfor \bnft{PAJC} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Article} & \bnfeq & \bnft{the \bnfor a \bnfor an} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Preposition} & \bnfeq & \bnft{to \bnfor in \bnfor on \bnfor near} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Conjunction} & \bnfeq & \bnft{and \bnfor or \bnfor but} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Digit} & \bnfeq & \bnft{0\bnfor 1\bnfor 2\bnfor 3\bnfor 4\bnfor 5\bnfor 6\bnfor 7\bnfor 8\bnfor 9}
\end{eqnarray*}
Divided into \defn{closed} and \defn{open} classes

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Wumpus lexicon}

\vspace*{-0.5in}

\begin{eqnarray*}
\bnf{Noun} & \bnfeq & \bnft{stench \bnfor breeze \bnfor glitter \bnfor nothing} \\
        & &\bnfor \bnft{wumpus \bnfor pit \bnfor pits\bnfor gold \bnfor east} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Verb} & \bnfeq & \bnft{is \bnfor see \bnfor smell \bnfor shoot \bnfor feel \bnfor stinks}\\
        & &\bnfor \bnft{go \bnfor grab \bnfor carry \bnfor kill \bnfor turn} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Adjective} & \bnfeq & \bnft{right \bnfor left \bnfor east \bnfor south \bnfor back \bnfor smelly} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Adverb} & \bnfeq & \bnft{here \bnfor there \bnfor nearby \bnfor ahead} \\
        &&\bnfor \bnft{right \bnfor left \bnfor east \bnfor south \bnfor back} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Pronoun} & \bnfeq & \bnft{me \bnfor you \bnfor I \bnfor it \bnfor \mat{S/HE} \bnfor \mat{Y'ALL}} \ldots \\
\bnf{Name} & \bnfeq & \bnft{John} \bnfor \bnft{Mary} \bnfor \bnft{Boston}
	\bnfor \bnft{UCB} \bnfor \bnft{PAJC} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Article} & \bnfeq & \bnft{the \bnfor a \bnfor an} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Preposition} & \bnfeq & \bnft{to \bnfor in \bnfor on \bnfor near} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Conjunction} & \bnfeq & \bnft{and \bnfor or \bnfor but} \bnfor \ldots \\
\bnf{Digit} & \bnfeq & \bnft{0\bnfor 1\bnfor 2\bnfor 3\bnfor 4\bnfor 5\bnfor 6\bnfor 7\bnfor 8\bnfor 9}
\end{eqnarray*}
Divided into \defn{closed} and \defn{open} classes

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Wumpus grammar}

\vspace*{-0.2in}

\[ \begin{array}{rclcl}
\bnf{S} &\bnfeq& \bnf{NP}  \bl \bnf{VP}             && \mbox{I + feel a breeze }\\  
        & \bnfor & \bnf{S} \bl \bnf{Conjunction} \bl \bnf{S} && \mbox{I feel a
breeze + and + I smell a wumpus}\\[0.2in]
\bnf{NP} &\bnfeq& \bnf{Pronoun}                 && \mbox{I }\\
        & \bnfor & \bnf{Noun}                   && \mbox{pits }\\
        & \bnfor & \bnf{Article} \bl  \bnf{Noun}    && \mbox{the + wumpus }\\
	& \bnfor & \bnf{Digit}\bl  \bnf{Digit}	&& \mbox{3 4} \\
        & \bnfor & \bnf{NP} \bl  \bnf{PP}     && \mbox{the wumpus + to the east}\\
	& \bnfor & \bnf{NP} \bl \bnf{RelClause} && \mbox{the wumpus + that is smelly} \\[0.2in]
\bnf{VP} & \bnfeq & \bnf{Verb}                   && \mbox{stinks}\\
        & \bnfor & \bnf{VP} \bl  \bnf{NP}            && \mbox{feel + a breeze}\\
        & \bnfor & \bnf{VP} \bl  \bnf{Adjective}     && \mbox{is + smelly}\\
        & \bnfor & \bnf{VP} \bl  \bnf{PP}            && \mbox{turn + to the east}\\
        & \bnfor & \bnf{VP} \bl  \bnf{Adverb}        && \mbox{go + ahead}\\[0.2in]
\bnf{PP} & \bnfeq & \bnf{Preposition}  \bl \bnf{NP}  && \mbox{to + the east}\\
\rule[-9pt]{0pt}{10pt}\bnf{RelClause} & \bnfeq & \bnft{that} \bl \bnf{VP} &&\mbox{that + is smelly}\\
\end{array}\]



%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Grammaticality judgements}

Formal language \mat{$L_1$} may differ from natural language \mat{$L_2$}

\vspace*{0.2in}

\epsfxsize=0.6\textwidth
\fig{\file{figures}{language-learning.ps}}

Adjusting \mat{$L_1$} to agree with \mat{$L_2$} is a learning problem!

\begin{tabular}{ll}
  \ * & the gold grab the wumpus \\
  \ * & I smell the wumpus the gold \\
    & I give the wumpus the gold \\
  \ * & I donate the wumpus the gold
\end{tabular}

Intersubjective agreement somewhat reliable, independent of semantics!\\
Real grammars 10--500 pages, insufficient even for ``proper'' English



%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Parse trees}

Exhibit the grammatical structure of a sentence

\vspace*{0.2in}

\epsfxsize=0.8\textwidth
\fig{\sfile{figures}{parse-tree1.ps}}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Parse trees}

Exhibit the grammatical structure of a sentence

\vspace*{0.2in}

\epsfxsize=0.8\textwidth
\fig{\sfile{figures}{parse-tree2.ps}}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Parse trees}

Exhibit the grammatical structure of a sentence

\vspace*{0.2in}

\epsfxsize=0.8\textwidth
\fig{\sfile{figures}{parse-tree3.ps}}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Parse trees}

Exhibit the grammatical structure of a sentence

\vspace*{0.2in}

\epsfxsize=0.8\textwidth
\fig{\sfile{figures}{parse-tree4.ps}}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Parse trees}

Exhibit the grammatical structure of a sentence

\vspace*{0.2in}

\epsfxsize=0.8\textwidth
\fig{\sfile{figures}{parse-tree5.ps}}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Syntax in NLP}

Most view syntactic structure as an essential step towards meaning;\al
``Mary hit John'' $\neq$ ``John hit Mary''

``And since I was not informed---as a matter of fact, since I did not
know that there were excess funds until we, ourselves, in that checkup
after the whole thing blew up, and that was, if you'll remember, that
was the incident in which the attorney general came to me and told me
that he had seen a memo that indicated that there were no more
funds.''

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Syntax in NLP}

Most view syntactic structure as an essential step towards meaning;\al
``Mary hit John'' $\neq$ ``John hit Mary''

``And since I was not informed---as a matter of fact, since I did not
know that there were excess funds until we, ourselves, in that checkup
after the whole thing blew up, and that was, if you'll remember, that
was the incident in which the attorney general came to me and told me
that he had seen a memo that indicated that there were no more
funds.''

``Wouldn't the sentence 'I want to put a hyphen between the words Fish
and And and And and Chips in my Fish-And-Chips sign' have been clearer
if quotation marks had been placed before Fish, and between Fish and
and, and and and And, and And and and, and and and And, and And and
and, and and and Chips, as well as after Chips?''


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Context-free parsing}

Bottom-up parsing works by replacing any substring that matches\\
RHS of a rule with the rule's LHS

Efficient algorithms (e.g., chart parsing, Section 22.3) \mat{$O(n^3)$} for context-free,
run at several thousand words/sec for real grammars

Context-free parsing \mat{$\equiv$} Boolean matrix multiplication (Lee, 2002)\nl
\mat{$\implies$} unlikely to find faster practical algorithms 


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Logical grammars}

BNF notation for grammars too restrictive:\al
-- difficult to add ``side conditions'' (number agreement, etc.)\al
-- difficult to connect syntax to semantics

Idea: express grammar rules as logic
\[\begin{array}{lcl}
\bnf{X}\bnfeq\bnf{Y}\bnf{Z}        &\mbox{becomes} & \mat{Y(s_1) \land Z(s_2) \implies X(Append(s_1,s_2))} \\
\bnf{X}\bnfeq\bnft{word}           &\mbox{becomes} & \mat{X([\mbox{``}\bnft{word}\mbox{''}])} \\
\bnf{X}\bnfeq\bnf{Y}\bnfor \bnf{Z} &\mbox{becomes} & \mat{Y(s) \implies X(s)\quad Z(s) \implies X(s)}
\end{array}\]
Here, \mat{$X(s)$} means that string \mat{$s$} \emph{can be interpreted} as an \mat{$X$}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Logical grammars contd.}

Now it's easy to augment the rules
\mat{\begin{eqnarray*}
NP(s_1) &\land &EatsBreakfast(Ref(s_1)) \land VP(s_2) \\
        &&      \implies NP(Append(s_1,[\mbox{``}\bnft{who}\mbox{''}],s_2))\\
        && \\
NP(s_1) &\land &Number(s_1,n) \land VP(s_2) \land Number(s_2,n) \\
        &&      \implies S(Append(s_1,s_2))
\end{eqnarray*}}
Parsing is reduced to logical inference:\al
  {\sc Ask}(\mat{$KB$}, \mat{$S([\mbox{``}\bnft{I}\mbox{'' ``}\bnft{am}\mbox{'' ``}\bnft{a}\mbox{'' ``}\bnft{wumpus}\mbox{''}])$})\\
(Can add extra arguments to return the parse structure, semantics)

Generation simply requires a query with uninstantiated variables:\al
  {\sc Ask}(\mat{$KB$}, \mat{$S(x)$})

If we add arguments to nonterminals to construct sentence semantics,
NLP generation can be done from a given logical sentence:\al
  {\sc Ask}(\mat{$KB$}, \mat{$S(x,At(Robot,[1,1])$})





%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Real language}

Real human languages provide many problems for NLP:

\blob \defn{ambiguity}

\blob \defn{anaphora}

\blob \defn{indexicality}

\blob \defn{vagueness}

\blob \defn{discourse structure}

\blob \defn{metonymy}

\blob \defn{metaphor}

\blob \defn{noncompositionality}


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Ambiguity}

Squad helps dog bite victim 

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Ambiguity}

Squad helps dog bite victim \\
Helicopter powered by human flies

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Ambiguity}

Squad helps dog bite victim \\
Helicopter powered by human flies\\
American pushes bottle up Germans

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Ambiguity}

Squad helps dog bite victim \\
Helicopter powered by human flies\\
American pushes bottle up Germans\\
\begin{tabular}{ll}I ate spaghetti with & meatballs 
\end{tabular}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Ambiguity}

Squad helps dog bite victim \\
Helicopter powered by human flies\\
American pushes bottle up Germans\\
\begin{tabular}{ll}I ate spaghetti with & meatballs \\
                                        & salad 
\end{tabular}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Ambiguity}

Squad helps dog bite victim \\
Helicopter powered by human flies\\
American pushes bottle up Germans\\
\begin{tabular}{ll}I ate spaghetti with & meatballs \\
                                        & salad \\
                                        & abandon 
\end{tabular}


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Ambiguity}

Squad helps dog bite victim \\
Helicopter powered by human flies\\
American pushes bottle up Germans\\
\begin{tabular}{ll}I ate spaghetti with & meatballs \\
                                        & salad \\
                                        & abandon \\
                                        & a fork 
\end{tabular}


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Ambiguity}

Squad helps dog bite victim \\
Helicopter powered by human flies\\
American pushes bottle up Germans\\
\begin{tabular}{ll}I ate spaghetti with & meatballs \\
                                        & salad \\
                                        & abandon \\
                                        & a fork \\
                                        & a friend 
\end{tabular}

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Ambiguity}

Squad helps dog bite victim \\
Helicopter powered by human flies\\
American pushes bottle up Germans\\
\begin{tabular}{ll}I ate spaghetti with & meatballs \\
                                        & salad \\
                                        & abandon \\
                                        & a fork \\
                                        & a friend 
\end{tabular}

Ambiguity can be lexical (polysemy), syntactic, semantic, referential


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Anaphora}

Using pronouns to refer back to entities already introduced in the text

After Mary proposed to John, \emph{they} found a preacher and got married.

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Anaphora}

Using pronouns to refer back to entities already introduced in the text

After Mary proposed to John, \emph{they} found a preacher and got married.

For the honeymoon, \emph{they} went to Hawaii


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Anaphora}

Using pronouns to refer back to entities already introduced in the text

After Mary proposed to John, \emph{they} found a preacher and got married.

For the honeymoon, \emph{they} went to Hawaii

Mary saw a ring through the window and asked John for \emph{it}


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Anaphora}

Using pronouns to refer back to entities already introduced in the text

After Mary proposed to John, \emph{they} found a preacher and got married.

For the honeymoon, \emph{they} went to Hawaii

Mary saw a ring through the window and asked John for \emph{it}

Mary threw a rock at the window and broke \emph{it}


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Indexicality}

Indexical sentences refer to utterance situation (place, time, S/H, etc.)

\emph{I} \emph{am} over \emph{here}

Why did \emph{you} do \emph{that}?


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Metonymy}

Using one noun phrase to stand for another

I've read \emph{Shakespeare}

\emph{Chrysler} announced record profits

The \emph{ham sandwich} on Table 4 wants another beer


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Metaphor}

``Non-literal'' usage of words and phrases, often systematic:

I've tried killing the process but it won't die. Its parent keeps it alive.


%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

red book

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

red book\\
red pen

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

red book\\
red pen\\
red hair

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

red book\\
red pen\\
red hair\\
red herring

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

red book\\
red pen\\
red hair\\
red herring

small moon

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

red book\\
red pen\\
red hair\\
red herring

small moon\\
large molecule

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

red book\\
red pen\\
red hair\\
red herring

small moon\\
large molecule\\
mere child

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

red book\\
red pen\\
red hair\\
red herring

small moon\\
large molecule\\
mere child\\
alleged murderer

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

red book\\
red pen\\
red hair\\
red herring

small moon\\
large molecule\\
mere child\\
alleged murderer\\
real leather

%%%%%%%%%%%% Slide %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\heading{Noncompositionality}

basketball shoes\\
baby shoes\\
alligator shoes\\
designer shoes\\
brake shoes

red book\\
red pen\\
red hair\\
red herring

small moon\\
large molecule\\
mere child\\
alleged murderer\\
real leather\\
artificial grass



\end{huge}
\end{document}


